Modern commentary on 'Vaisesika Sūtras' of sage Kanāda

Chapter 1.1

Aphorisms on Dharma that is benovolent

Sage Kanāda identifies the topic of discussion for Vaisēsika sūtras as "Dharma", in the very first aphorism_[1.1.1]. We have named Bādarāyana sūtras as 'Brahma sūtras', as it starts with the aphorism "oṁ athāto brahmajijñāsā oṁ". Similarly, we call Pātanjali sūtras as 'Yoga sūtras' as it starts with "atha yōgānuśāsanam". On a similar parallel, we must call the sage Kanāda's 'Vaisēsika sutras' as 'Dharma Sutras'. Dharma is the topic of discussion for this classical Darshana. The term 'Dharma' is further elaborated by sage Kanāda by stating:

"That from which the welfare, ultimate good, and accomplishments results is Dharma_[1.1.2]."

So 'Dharma' is that principle which works for the benevolence of the universe. Clarifying the intentionality of 'Dharma' as a benevolent force, sage Kanāda upfront rejects the possibility of all non-theistic interpretations of these aphorisms. He further explains that the true understanding of 'Dharma' can be derived solely from valid and authentic scriptural statements ('pramānas'), i.e. the Vedas, which are reliable sources of knowledge_[1.1.3].

'Padartha' - Concepts_[1.1.4]

The word 'padartha' literally translates to 'meaning of a word' (pada-artha), i.e. concepts. It is better for us to stick to this literal interpretation, 'concepts'. It is much later, the term got the general meaning 'substance'. The various concepts are born from the principles of 'Dharma'. The basis of identifying the various concepts is based on the special properties they possess. These concepts are analyzed by identifying the underlying common and differentiated properties. Here, we use the concept of collection or set theory to examine the properties of various principles, employing union and intersection operations of the sets to separate and categorize them. Based on the common and differentiated properties following six novel concepts are identified:

1. Dravya - Entities who have the potential to flow
2. Guna - Range of perceptions
3. Karma - Types of movements
4. sāmānya - Generality
5. viśēṣa - Particularity
6. samavāyā - Inherence

The significance of understanding this analysis is once again underscored, as knowing the true principles is productive in achieving ultimate good.

'Dravya' - Entities who have the potential to flow

The word 'dravya' etymologically can be split to: द्रु (dru) - root meaning "to flow". अ (a) - prefix indicating a direction or intensity. य (ya) - suffix indicating possession or quality. Thus, "द्रव्य" (dravya) can be understood as something possessing the quality of flowing or having the potential to flow. The concept 'dravya' i.e entities who have the potential to flow , are further classified as_[1.1.5]:

1. Earth (pr̥thivi),
2. Water (āpaḥ),
3. Effulgence (tējō),
4. Air (vāyuḥ),
5. Space (ākāśaṁ),
6. Time (kāla),
7. Directions (dik),
8. Essence (ātma)
9. Mind (mana)

It is important to note, apart from the four material elements (earth, water, fire, and air), the non-material elemets such as space, time, directions, mind and 'ātmān' are also classified as entities who have the potential to flow.

'Guna' - Range of perceptions_[1.1.6]

Then sage goes on to define the next conceptual term 'guna'. It comprises the entire range of perceptions that results from experiencing the entities that have the potential to flow. It includes:

1. Form ( rūpa )
2. Taste ( rasa )
3. Smell ( gandha )
4. Touch ( sparśa )
5. Hearing ( aḥ )
6. Count in multiples ( saṁkhyāḥ )
7. Their effect individually ( pr̥thaktvaṁ )
8. Their effect in conjunction ( saṁyōga )
9. Their effect in disjunction ( vibhāgau )
10. Their material existence ( paratva )
11. Their transcendental existence ( aparatva )
12. Understanding resulting from experiencing them (buddhayaḥ )
13. Consequent pleasure ( sukha )
14. Consequent pain ( duḥkhē )
15. Resulting wishes ( icchā )
16. Resulting hatred ( dvēṣau )
17. Arising from the exertion based on above experiences ( prayatnāḥ )

'Karma' - Types of movements_[1.1.7]

After elaborating on concepts 'Dravya' and 'Guna' sage Kanāda next elaborates on the third concept 'karma' . Unlike the loaded understanding of karma as action, one's duty, deeds etc. Sage Kanāda surprises us with his very simple definition which eludes to different 'types of movements' . They are classified as:

1. Ascending ( utkṣēpaṇam )
2. Descending ( avakṣēpaṇam )
3. Contracting ( ākuñcanaṁ )
4. Spreading ( prasāraṇaṁ )
5. Displacement ( gamanam )

How sāmānya , the generality and viśēṣa , the speciality come into being?

The entities that have the potential to flow, subjected to cause and effect, come into being (sat) and non-being (anitya), and are classified as generality (sāmānya) and speciality (viśēṣa). On their own, the Dravya, Guna, and Karma are without speciality, i.e. a single dravya, or guna, or movement has no speciality_[1.1.8]. Both Dravya and Guna begin in the same class, and are possessed with 'sadharma', i.e. common properties_[1.1.9].

The combination of entities manifests into other Dravyas and Gunas. But Karmas don't manifest into other Karmas.

From the combination of entities that have the potential to flow manifests various other entities that have the potential to flow. Similarly, from the combination of perceptible attributes manifests various other perceptible attributes_[1.1.10]. But it does not appear that movement generates new movements_[1.1.11].

Characteristics of the perceptible attributes, i.e. 'Guna'

The entities that have the potential to flow does not attach itself to the cause and its effect_[1.1.12]. But both the entities that have the potential to flow and the movements have perceptible attributes_[1.1.13]. Movement usually opposes the effect_[1.1.14]. Movements possessed with perceptible attributes and its inherent causes govern the characteristics of the entities that have the potential to flow_[1.1.15]. Qualities take shelter in dependent combination and disjunction of substances, uncaused by the mind. This is the characteristics of perceptible attributes, i.e. Guna_[1.1.16].

This underlines that the reality is independent of the mind; dravyas are neutral to cause and effect; both Dravya and Karma possess Gunas; Karma opposes effect; gunas takes shelter under dravyas. Making entities that have the potential to flow, to take shelter in the characteristics of perceptible attributes, and its inherent causes. .

A single entity with the potential to flow is without perceptible attributes and is independent of the cause by its combination and disjunction. Which also means, it is the combination of different variety of entities with potentiality to flow caused by movement that results in perceptible attributes. The mind being one of the Dravays is a neutral player when it is a single entity.

Significance of Movement, i.e. Karma, and the resultant generality.

It is movement, i.e. Karma which causes perceptible attributes by combination and disjunction of entities that have the potential to flow. The entities with potential to flow are the general cause, i.e. generality resulting from the combination of dravyas, gunas, and karmas. Even the resultant perceptible attributes are a generality. Movement is the generality of the speed at which combination and disjunction take place. Movement (karma) is not caused by the entities that have the potential to flow, as it is different from it. Effect of entities that have the potential to flow is the common generality among the entities.

How variety is produced in the universe?

Due to movement brought about by the variance in the perceptible attributes, because of their respective DHARMAs, results in movement, i.e. Karma. From it comes separateness, multiplicity, individuality, conjunction, and disjunction as well. We are usually focussed on speciality, as generality due to common effect of movement is not perceived. Other entities with potentiality to flow are formed by conjunction. Similarly, conjunction of forms results in other forms.

It is Gravity that is responsible for conjunction.

It is through Movement conjunction and disjunction comes about. Hence, entities that flow are actually caused because of the effect of generality of these movements, though it is spoken as though movement is not its cause.

Chapter 1.2

Cause and Effect

When there is an absence of the cause, there is definitely the absence of the effect. But, in the absence of effect, we cannot conclude there is an absence of the cause.

Identification of generality and particularity, and how existence ('satta') comes into being!

The generality and the particularity are determined with the help of intellect, as it cannot be easily correlated to cause. The existence, being continued, because of the cause, is generality only. The Dravyas, Gunas, and Karmas have both common properties in the form of generality and also special properties in the form of particularity. The specialities exist usually in the ends. It is called "sat", i.e. truth, i.e. existence, if those substances, qualities, and actions exist. The differences among entities with potential to flow, perceptible attributes, and movements manifest as 'Satta', i.e. existence. By the movement of perceptible attributes, we see becoming. Without movement, perceptible attributes do not express themselves because of the absence of the generality and the particularity. The state of being of various entities that have the potential to flow is engulfed in the beingness of the entities that have the potential to flow because of the absence of the generality and the particularity. (Does it mean, the dark matter exists, but does not express itself, as there is no movement. Matter expresses itself, only when their generality and particularity are brought out?)

'Perceptible attribute'-ness (Gunatva)

Due to absence of the generality and the particularity, The state of being of various entities that have the potential to flow is engulfed in the beingness of the entities. Therefore, perceptible attributes among the existent are declared as 'perceptible attributeness' (Gunatva).

Movement-ness (Karmatva)

Because of absence of the generality and the particularity, the state of being of various entities that have the potential to flow is engulfed in the beingness of the entities. Thus, the movement among the existent is declared as the movement-ness.

Definition of Existence, i.e. reality (Sat)

The 'Perceptible attribute' ness and 'Movement' ness are because of the absence of the generality and the particularity. Which also means, in the presence of generality and particularity, we see the manifested universe, at other times, its presence is not known.

Hence, at the end of second chapter, it is declared:
'Sat', i.e. the reality, i.e. existence, is because of particularity as a distinguishing mark, the same existence is also because of the absence of particularity as a distinguishing mark.

Chapter 2.1

Five elements and its perceptible attributes

The earth has form, taste, smell, and touch.

The water is a smooth fluid that possesses form, taste, and touch.

The effulgence has form and touch.

Possessing the sense of touch is the Air.

These (form, taste, smell, and touch) are not perceived in space.

Air

The remains of clarified butter, wax, and honey - by union with fire, gains "liquid-ness", because of their generality, i.e. common property. The tin, lead, iron, silver, and gold - by union with fire, liquid-ness is formed by generality, i.e. common property. Poison of the scorpion, rabbit dwelling on the outskirts, cow-ness of the cow - are the visible distinguishing marks.

Similarly, touch is the distinguishing mark of Air that is invisible (adr̥ṣṭa). Air is a substance with the absence of 'substance-ness'. Based on action-ness and quality-ness, Air is a substance. As Air is devoid of substance-ness, it is said to be continually existent. As Air gets mixed with Air, multiplicity is its distinguishing mark. Even when Air is in proximity, there is an absence of direct perception. Hence, it appears, seeing is not its distinguishing mark. Air's perception property is a generality, as it is without distinction. Such is the traditional convention with respect to Air.

Space ('ākāśasa')

Indeed, Name and Action are its distinguishing marks that bring out particularity. As Name and Action, by its nature of being, are directly perceptible. Exit and entry are the distinguishing marks of the space ('ākāśasa'). Substance-ness or action alone does not distinguish it. Space is not distinguished for substance-ness as it causes another to adhere to a particular nature. Space is not distinguished for action because of absence of contact or association.

It has been observed that perceptible attributes of the cause precede perceptible attributes of the effect. Difference in the effect is due to the absence of the manifestation of sound and touch, because of the absence of their perceptible attributes. Elsewhere, the effect is due to its inherent nature being perceptible, and not because of its own essential perceptible attributes, nor because of the perceptible attributes of the mind.

The residue after the effect, i.e. sound, is the distinguishing mark of the space. It is said that the permanence of substance-ness is because of air. The reality of principle is because of the being coming into existence.

The sound is the special distinguishing mark of the space, because of the absence of other special distinguishing marks.

By following this method, we establish the separate distinctiveness of those substances.

Chapter 2.2

How distinguishing marks of 'Padārtha' come about? (other than ātma and manas)

When the flower and garment that are together are brought to proximity, the disappearance of fragrance from the garment is the distinguishing mark. The property of fragrance is established in the earth (as a distinguishing mark). Similarly, the heat is explained. Heat is (the distinguishing mark) of brightness (tejas). Coldness is (the distinguishing mark) of water. Having simultaneous experience of the other as before, and the current moment as now, is the distinguishing mark of time. By that, the nature of air, in terms of its potentiality to flow and eternality, are explained.

The true principles are deduced from becoming. Continuity is because of the absence of becoming, dis-continuity is because of becoming. The cause is, therefore, because of time. "It is this" - which indicates thus, is the distinguishing mark. Thus, the principle of potentiality to flow and the principle of continued existence are explained in the air element.

The principle comes forth by becoming. By the particular speciality of the effects, the variance comes into being. The direction east emerges by the combination of the Sun with the past, the future, and the present. Similarly, are the South, the West, and the Northern directions. Similarly, the directions in between are also explained.

During the direct perception of generality and the direct perception of speciality, only the speciality is remembered, resulting in doubt. By seeing or experiencing, the ability to experience (comes into being). The way the experienced, similarly, not experienced as well, because of the ability to experience. Thus, doubt results from those that shine and those that do not shine.

The meaning grasped by hearing, that is the sound of the word. Among the same kind that are equal, and among those with difference, the particularity among both are observed. (As the sound of the word conveys the meaning) of one substance, not of the other. Also, (sound of the word) is not action, as it is not the object of perception. Quality to come into existence and release (of the sound produced by the word), is similar to the inherent nature of movement (karma). Because of the absence of distinguishing marks of the existent (in the sound produced by the word). As it (the sound produced by the word) has an inherent nature that differs from the eternal entity. And, it (the sound produced by the word) is non-eternal as it has a cause. and, it (the sound produced by the word) is not disproved because of its modifications. Because of the defect during manifestation.

From the conjunction and disjunction of the sounds produced by words, other sounds of the words manifest. The sound produced by the word has a distinguishing mark, but is impermanent. Indeed, of the two, due to absence of inherent drive to act.

From the first syllable “ā”. And due to the presence of mutual recognition (of identity or agreement). Doubtful when multiplicity exists. Absence of number, generally.

Chapter 3.1

Nature of ātman

The objects of the senses are well known. The non-recognition of sense-objects is the cause for positing a different entity apart from the sense-objects. That is not verbally expressible. Due to ignorance of the cause. From knowledge (arising) in effects. And from ignorance. It is indeed a different cause; hence; it is not verbally expressible. It is indeed a different entity, for the different entity is not verbally expressible. It is opposed to what inheres in a conjunction and to what inheres in a common substratum. It (is) the effect of another effect. That which has become the opposite of what existed. That which has come into being from that which previously existed. The one that has become from an existing thing. Because verbal designation is preceded by common recognition. What is not commonly known is not verbally expressible. That which has existed, yet being uncertain, is not verbally expressible.

Because it has horns, therefore it is a horse. (Note: This sūtra is intentionally ironic or illustrative of faulty reasoning.) “Because it has horns, therefore it is a cow” — this is an example of a fallacious (non-exclusive) reason. That which arises from the contact of self, sense, and object is something different (from all three). Action and withdrawal, when observed in the inner self, are indications of another (i.e., the self’s distinct existence).