Now, therefore, we shall explain dharma.

Now, therefore, we shall explain the concept of 'DHARMA'.

That from which arises both worldly prosperity and supreme good is dharma.

That from which the welfare, ultimate good, and accomplishments results is DHARMA.

The authority of the Veda is established because of that statement.

That, i.e. DHARMA, is deciphered from scriptural statements that are 'pramanas', i.e. valid source of knowledge.

From specific dharma arises knowledge of the true nature of the categories—substance, quality, action, generality, particularity, and inherence—through similarity and dissimilarity; from this knowledge comes liberation.

Born from the special characteristics of DHARMA, 'padarthas' i.e. those represented by words' meanings, based on their underlying common and differentiated DHARMAS can be classified as substance (dravya), qualities (guṇa), duties (karma), generality (sāmānya), particularity (viśēṣa), and inherence (samavāyā). Knowledge of their true principles is productive of ultimate good.

Earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, direction, self, and mind—these are the substances.

The Earth, the water, the fire, the air, the space, the time, the directions, the ātmān, i.e. essence of being, and the mind are dravyas.

Color, taste, smell, touch, number, measures, separateness, conjunction and disjunction, priority and posteriority, cognitions, pleasure and pain, desire and aversion, and efforts—these are qualities.

The form, taste, smell, touch, hearing, their count in multiples, their effects individually, in conjunction, and in disjunction, their material existence and beyond, understanding resulting from it, consequent pleasure and pain experienced, resulting wish and hatred, arising of drive are the gunas, i.e. qualities.

Upward movement, downward movement, contraction, extension, and locomotion—these are actions.

Ascending, descending, contracting, spreading, and moving are 'karmas' i.e. actions.

The existent, though non-eternal, is like substance—being effect and cause, and possessing generality and particularity; thus, there is non-distinction among substance, quality, and action.

The substances because of cause and effect manifest into being (sat) and non-being (anitya), and are classified as generality (sāmānya) and particularity (viśēṣa). Thus the substance, qualities and actions are present without particularity.

The similarity between substance and quality lies in their ability to originate entities of their own kind.

Substances and qualities, both having beginning in the same class, is pocessed with 'sadharma', i.e. common DHARMA, i.e. common properties.

Substances produce other substances, and qualities give rise to other qualities.

From the substances originates variance in substances, and similarly, from qualities manifest variances in qualities.

An action is not produced by another action.

It does not appear that movement comes forth from movement.

A substance does not hinder either the effect or the cause.

The substance does not bind to the cause and its effect.

Qualities operate in both ways.

But both (movement and substance) have qualities.

Action is that which is opposed to the effect.

Movement is opposed to effect.

That which possesses action and quality and serves as an inherential cause is defined as substance.

The characteristics of the substance are governed by movement possessed with qualities and its inherent causes.

A quality is that which resides in a substance, has distinguishing features, is not a cause of conjunction or disjunction, and exists independently—such is the definition of quality.

Qualities take shelter in dependent combination and disjunction of substances, uncaused by the mind. This is the characteristics of qualities (guna).

Action is that which resides in a single substance, is devoid of qualities, and serves as an independent cause in conjunctions and disjunctions.

A single substance is without qualities, and is independent of the cause, by its combination and disjunction. This is the characteristics of movement (karma).

Substance is the common cause of substance, quality, and action.

The substance is the general cause of substances, qualities, and movements.

Likewise, quality.

So are qualities.

Action is the common cause of conjunction, disjunction, and motion.

Movement is the generality of the speed of combination and disjunction.

Action does not belong to substances inherently.

Movement (karma) is not from the substances.

Because of distinction (i.e., it is inferred by its separateness).

Due to its difference from it.

Substance is the common effect of substances.

Effect of substance is the common generality among the substances.

Because of dissimilarity in qualities, one action is not the effect of another action.

Due to movement brought about by variance in the qualities, because of their respective DHARMAs, results in movement, i.e. Karma.

Duality and similar concepts are numbers, as are separateness, conjunction, and disjunction.

From it comes separateness, multiplicity, individuality, combination, and disjunction as well.

Action does not exist as a general effect arising from non-inherence.

Due to absence of generality (as each substance is bound to have some differences), the common effects of action do not come to light.

Substance is the cause of conjunctions.

The substances are formed by conjunction.

Form is the cause of forms.

(Similarly), by (the conjunction of) forms, forms come about.

Upward motion results from heaviness, effort, and conjunction.

By the striving of gravity, 'conjunction' comes about.

Conjunctions and disjunctions are effects of actions.

Combination and Disjunction comes about by action (karma).

It is stated that, even when causes are of a general kind, action is not the cause of substances or other actions.

The substances are caused because of the effect of generality, and it is spoken as though action is not the cause.

Due to the absence of the cause, there is the absence of the effect.

But, in the absence of effect, there is no absence of the cause.

Thus the generality and the particularity are determined with reference to intellect.

The existence, being continued, because of the cause, is generality only.

The substances, qualities, and actions have both common properties in the form of generality and also special properties in the form of particularity.

The specialities exist elsewhere, in the ends.

It is called "sat", i.e. truth, i.e. existence, if those substances, qualities, and actions exist.

The difference in the meaning between substances, qualities, and actions is 'Satta' i.e. existence.

By the actions of qualities we see becoming. Without action, qualities do not express themselves.

Due to absence of generality and particularity.

The state of being of various substances is engulfed in the beingness of the substances.

Due to absence of generality and particularity.

This way, among the existent, the quality-ness is declared in the qualities.

Due to the absence of generality and particularity.

The action among the existent is declared as the action-ness.

Due to the absence of generality and particularity.

'Sat', i.e. the reality, i.e. existence, is because of particularity as a distinguishing mark, the same existence is also because of the absence of particularity as a distinguishing mark.

The earth has form, taste, smell, and touch.

The water is a smooth fluid that possesses form, taste, and touch.

The effulgence has form and touch.

Possessing the sense of touch is the Air.

These (form, taste, smell, and touch) are not perceived in space.

The remains of clarified butter, wax, and honey - by union with fire, gains "liquid-ness", because of their generality, i.e. common property.

The tin, lead, iron, silver, and gold - by union with fire, liquid-ness is formed by generality, i.e. common property.

Poison of the scorpion, rabbit dwelling on the outskirts, cow-ness of the cow - are the visible distinguishing marks.

(Similarly) touch is (the distinguishing mark) of Air.

and, as touch is not visible, it is invisible (adr̥ṣṭa) distinguishing mark of the Air.

(Air) is a substance with the absence of 'substance-ness'.

Based on action-ness and quality-ness, (Air is a substance).

(As Air) is devoid of substance-ness, it is said to be continually existent.

As Air gets mixed with Air, multiplicity is its distinguishing mark.

Even when Air is in proximity, there is an absence of direct perception. Hence, it appears, seeing is not its distinguishing mark.

It's (Air's) perception property is a generality, as it is without distinction.

Such is the traditional convention (with respect to Air).

Indeed, Name and Action are its distinguishing marks that bring out particularity.

As Name and Action, by its nature of being, are directly perceptible.

Exit and entry are the distinguishing marks of the space ('ākāśasa').

Substance-ness or action alone do not distinguish it.

(space is not distinguished for substance-ness as it) causes another to adhere to a particular nature, and

(space is not distinguished for) action because of absence of contact or association.

It has been observed that qualities of cause precede qualities of effect.

Difference in the effect is due to the absence of the manifestation of sound and touch, because of the absence of their qualities.

Elsewhere (the effect is) due to its inherent nature being perceptible, and not because of its own essential qualities, nor because of the qualities of the mind.

The residue (after the effect, i.e. sound) is the distinguishing mark of the space.

It is said that the permanence of substance-ness is because of air.

The reality of principle is because of the being (coming into existence).

The sound is the special distinguishing mark (of the space), because of the absence of other special distinguishing marks.

By following this method, the separate distinctiveness of those (substances) is established.

Thus ends the 1st chapter (of the second section).

When the flower and garment that are together are brought to proximity, the disappearance of fragrance from the garment is the distinguishing mark.

The property of fragrance is established in the earth (as a distinguishing mark).

Similarly, the heat is explained.

Heat is (the distinguishing mark) of brightness (tejas).

Coldness is (the distinguishing mark) of water.

Having simultaneous experience of the other as before, and the current moment as now, is the distinguishing mark of time.

By that, the nature of air, in terms of its potentiality to flow and eternality, are explained.

The true principles are deduced from becoming.

Continuity is because of the absence of becoming, dis-continuity is because of becoming. The cause is, therefore, because of time.

"It is this" - which indicates thus, is the distinguishing mark.

Thus, the principle of potentiality to flow and the principle of continued existence are explained in the air element.

The principle comes forth by becoming.

By the particular speciality of the effects, the variance comes into being.

The direction east emerges by the combination of the Sun with the past, the future, and the present.

Similarly, are the South, the West, and the Northern directions.

Similarly, the directions in between are also explained.

During the direct perception of generality and the direct perception of speciality, only the speciality is remembered, resulting in doubt.

By seeing or experiencing, the ability to experience (comes into being).

The way the experienced, similarly, not experienced as well, because of the ability to experience.

Thus, doubt results from those that shine and those that do not shine.

The meaning grasped by hearing, that is the sound of the word.

Among the same kind that are equal, and among those with difference, the particularity among both are observed.

(As the sound of the word conveys the meaning) of one substance, not of the other.

Also, (sound of the word) is not action, as it is not the object of perception.

Quality to come into existence and release (of the sound produced by the word), is similar to the inherent nature of movement (karma).

Because of the absence of distinguishing marks of the existent (in the sound produced by the word).

As it (the sound produced by the word) has an inherent nature that differs from the eternal entity.

And, it (the sound produced by the word) is non-eternal as it has a cause.

and, it (the sound produced by the word) is not disproved because of its modifications.

Because of the defect during manifestation.

From the conjunction and disjunction of the sounds produced by words, other sounds of the words manifest.

The sound produced by the word has a distinguishing mark, but is impermanent.

Indeed, of the two, due to absence of inherent drive to act.

From the first syllable “ā”.

And due to the presence of mutual recognition (of identity or agreement).

Doubtful when multiplicity exists.

Absence of number, generally.

Thus the second chapter, second lesson, is completed.

The objects of the senses are well-known.

The non-recognition of sense-objects is the cause for positing a different entity apart from the sense-objects.

That is not verbally expressible.

Due to ignorance of the cause.

From knowledge (arising) in effects.

And from ignorance.

It is indeed a different cause; hence, it is not verbally expressible.

It is indeed a different entity, for the different entity is not verbally expressible.

It is opposed to what inheres in a conjunction and to what inheres in a common substratum.

It (is) the effect of another effect.

That which has become the opposite of what existed.

That which has come into being from that which previously existed.

The one that has become from an existing thing.

Because verbal designation is preceded by common recognition.

What is not commonly known is not verbally expressible.

That which has existed, yet being uncertain, is not verbally expressible.

Because it has horns, therefore it is a horse. (Note: This sūtra is intentionally ironic or illustrative of faulty reasoning.)

“Because it has horns, therefore it is a cow” — this is an example of a fallacious (non-exclusive) reason.

That which arises from the contact of self, sense, and object is something different (from all three).

Action and withdrawal, when observed in the inner self, are indications of another (i.e., the self’s distinct existence).