1.1 Summary

Aphorisms on Dharma that is benovolent

Sage Kanāda identifies the topic of discussion for Vaisēsika sūtras as "Dharma", in the very first aphorism_[1.1.1]. We have named Bādarāyana sūtras as 'Brahma sūtras', as it starts with the aphorism "oṁ athāto brahmajijñāsā oṁ". Similarly, we call Pātanjali sūtras as 'Yoga sūtras' as it starts with "atha yōgānuśāsanam". On a similar parallel, we must call the sage Kanāda's 'Vaisēsika sutras' as 'Dharma Sutras'. Dharma is the topic of discussion for this classical Darshana. The term 'Dharma' is further elaborated by sage Kanāda by stating:

So 'Dharma' is that principle which works for the benevolence of the universe. Clarifying the intentionality of 'Dharma' as a benevolent force, sage Kanāda upfront rejects the possibility of all non-theistic interpretations of these aphorisms. He further explains that the true understanding of 'Dharma' can be derived solely from valid and authentic scriptural statements ('pramānas'), i.e. the Vedas, which are reliable sources of knowledge_[1.1.3].

'Padartha' - Concepts_[1.1.4]

The word 'padartha' literally translates to 'meaning of a word' (pada-artha), i.e. concepts. It is better for us to stick to this literal interpretation, 'concepts'. It is much later, the term got the general meaning 'substance'. The various concepts are born from the principles of 'Dharma'. The basis of identifying the various concepts is based on the special properties they possess. These concepts are analyzed by identifying the underlying common and differentiated properties. Here, we use the concept of collection or set theory to examine the properties of various principles, employing union and intersection operations of the sets to separate and categorize them. Based on the common and differentiated properties following six novel concepts are identified:

1. Dravya - Entities who have the potential to flow
2. Guna - Range of perceptions
3. Karma - Types of movements
4. sāmānya - Generality
5. viśēṣa - Particularity
6. samavāyā - Inherence

The significance of understanding this analysis is once again underscored, as knowing the true principles is productive in achieving ultimate good.

'Dravya' - Entities who have the potential to flow

The word 'dravya' etymologically can be split to: द्रु (dru) - root meaning "to flow". अ (a) - prefix indicating a direction or intensity. य (ya) - suffix indicating possession or quality. Thus, "द्रव्य" (dravya) can be understood as something possessing the quality of flowing or having the potential to flow. The concept 'dravya' i.e entities who have the potential to flow , are further classified as_[1.1.5]:

1. Earth (pr̥thivi),
2. Water (āpaḥ),
3. Effulgence (tējō),
4. Air (vāyuḥ),
5. Space (ākāśaṁ),
6. Time (kāla),
7. Directions (dik),
8. Essence (ātma)
9. Mind (mana)

It is important to note, apart from the four material elements (earth, water, fire, and air), the non-material elemets such as space, time, directions, mind and 'ātmān' are also classified as entities who have the potential to flow.

'Guna' - Range of perceptions_[1.1.6]

Then sage goes on to define the next conceptual term 'guna'. It comprises the entire range of perceptions that results from experiencing the entities that have the potential to flow. It includes:

1. Form ( rūpa )
2. Taste ( rasa )
3. Smell ( gandha )
4. Touch ( sparśa )
5. Hearing ( aḥ )
6. Count in multiples ( saṁkhyāḥ )
7. Their effect individually ( pr̥thaktvaṁ )
8. Their effect in conjunction ( saṁyōga )
9. Their effect in disjunction ( vibhāgau )
10. Their material existence ( paratva )
11. Their transcendental existence ( aparatva )
12. Understanding resulting from experiencing them (buddhayaḥ )
13. Consequent pleasure ( sukha )
14. Consequent pain ( duḥkhē )
15. Resulting wishes ( icchā )
16. Resulting hatred ( dvēṣau )
17. Arising from the exertion based on above experiences ( prayatnāḥ )

'Karma' - Types of movements_[1.1.7]

After elaborating on concepts 'Dravya' and 'Guna' sage Kanāda next elaborates on the third concept 'karma' . Unlike the loaded understanding of karma as action, one's duty, deeds etc. Sage Kanāda surprises us with his very simple definition which eludes to different 'types of movements' . They are classified as:

1. Ascending ( utkṣēpaṇam )
2. Descending ( avakṣēpaṇam )
3. Contracting ( ākuñcanaṁ )
4. Spreading ( prasāraṇaṁ )
5. Displacement ( gamanam )

How sāmānya , the generality and viśēṣa , the speciality come into being?

The entities that have the potential to flow, subjected to cause and effect, come into being (sat) and non-being (anitya), and are classified as generality (sāmānya) and speciality (viśēṣa). On their own, the Dravya, Guna, and Karma are without speciality, i.e. a single dravya, or guna, or movement has no speciality_[1.1.8]. Both Dravya and Guna begin in the same class, and are possessed with 'sadharma', i.e. common properties_[1.1.9].

The combination of entities manifests into other Dravyas and Gunas. But Karmas don't manifest into other Karmas.

From the combination of entities that have the potential to flow manifests various other entities that have the potential to flow. Similarly, from the combination of perceptible attributes manifests various other perceptible attributes_[1.1.10]. But it does not appear that movement generates new movements_[1.1.11].

Characteristics of the perceptible attributes, i.e. 'Guna'

The entities that have the potential to flow does not attach itself to the cause and its effect_[1.1.12]. But both the entities that have the potential to flow and the movements have perceptible attributes_[1.1.13]. Movement usually opposes the effect_[1.1.14]. Movements possessed with perceptible attributes and its inherent causes govern the characteristics of the entities that have the potential to flow_[1.1.15]. Qualities take shelter in dependent combination and disjunction of substances, uncaused by the mind. This is the characteristics of perceptible attributes, i.e. Guna_[1.1.16].

This underlines that the reality is independent of the mind; dravyas are neutral to cause and effect; both Dravya and Karma possess Gunas; Karma opposes effect; gunas takes shelter under dravyas. Making entities that have the potential to flow, to take shelter in the characteristics of perceptible attributes, and its inherent causes. .

A single entity with the potential to flow is without perceptible attributes and is independent of the cause by its combination and disjunction. Which also means, it is the combination of different variety of entities with potentiality to flow caused by movement that results in perceptible attributes. The mind being one of the Dravays is a neutral player when it is a single entity.

Significance of Movement, i.e. Karma, and the resultant generality.

It is movement, i.e. Karma which causes perceptible attributes by combination and disjunction of entities that have the potential to flow. The entities with potential to flow are the general cause, i.e. generality resulting from the combination of dravyas, gunas, and karmas. Even the resultant perceptible attributes are a generality. Movement is the generality of the speed at which combination and disjunction take place. Movement (karma) is not caused by the entities that have the potential to flow, as it is different from it. Effect of entities that have the potential to flow is the common generality among the entities.

How variety is produced in the universe?

Due to movement brought about by the variance in the perceptible attributes, because of their respective DHARMAs, results in movement, i.e. Karma. From it comes separateness, multiplicity, individuality, conjunction, and disjunction as well. We are usually focussed on speciality, as generality due to common effect of movement is not perceived. Other entities with potentiality to flow are formed by conjunction. Similarly, conjunction of forms results in other forms.

It is Gravity that is responsible for conjunction.

It is through Movement conjunction and disjunction comes about. Hence, entities that flow are actually caused because of the effect of generality of these movements, though it is spoken as though movement is not its cause.