Now, therefore, we shall explain dharma.

Now, therefore, we shall explain the concept of 'DHARMA'.

That from which arises both worldly prosperity and supreme good is dharma.

That from which the welfare, ultimate good, and accomplishments results is DHARMA.

The authority of the Veda is established because of that statement.

That, i.e. DHARMA, is deciphered from scriptural statements that are 'pramanas', i.e. valid source of knowledge.

From specific dharma arises knowledge of the true nature of the categories—substance, quality, action, generality, particularity, and inherence—through similarity and dissimilarity; from this knowledge comes liberation.

Born from the special characteristics of DHARMA, 'padarthas' i.e. those represented by words' meanings, based on their underlying common and differentiated DHARMAS can be classified as substance (dravya), qualities (guṇa), duties (karma), generality (sāmānya), particularity (viśēṣa), and inherence (samavāyā). Knowledge of their true principles is productive of ultimate good.

Earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, direction, self, and mind—these are the substances.

The Earth, the water, the fire, the air, the space, the time, the directions, the ātmān, i.e. essence of being, and the mind are dravyas.

Color, taste, smell, touch, number, measures, separateness, conjunction and disjunction, priority and posteriority, cognitions, pleasure and pain, desire and aversion, and efforts—these are qualities.

The form, taste, smell, touch, hearing, their count in multiples, their effects individually, in conjunction, and in disjunction, their material existence and beyond, understanding resulting from it, consequent pleasure and pain experienced, resulting wish and hatred, arising of drive are the gunas, i.e. qualities.

Upward movement, downward movement, contraction, extension, and locomotion—these are actions.

Ascending, descending, contracting, spreading, and moving are 'karmas' i.e. actions.

The existent, though non-eternal, is like substance—being effect and cause, and possessing generality and particularity; thus, there is non-distinction among substance, quality, and action.

The substances because of cause and effect manifest into being (sat) and non-being (anitya), and are classified as generality (sāmānya) and particularity (viśēṣa). Thus the substance, qualities and actions are present without particularity.

The similarity between substance and quality lies in their ability to originate entities of their own kind.

Substances and qualities, both having beginning in the same class, is pocessed with 'sadharma', i.e. common DHARMA, i.e. common properties.

Substances produce other substances, and qualities give rise to other qualities.

From the substances originates variance in substances, and similarly, from qualities manifest variances in qualities.

An action is not produced by another action.

It does not appear that movement comes forth from movement.

A substance does not hinder either the effect or the cause.

The substance does not bind to the cause and its effect.

Qualities operate in both ways.

But both (movement and substance) have qualities.

Action is that which is opposed to the effect.

Movement is opposed to effect.

That which possesses action and quality and serves as an inherential cause is defined as substance.

The characteristics of the substance are governed by movement possessed with qualities and its inherent causes.

A quality is that which resides in a substance, has distinguishing features, is not a cause of conjunction or disjunction, and exists independently—such is the definition of quality.

Qualities take shelter in dependent combination and disjunction of substances, uncaused by the mind. This is the characteristics of qualities (guna).

Action is that which resides in a single substance, is devoid of qualities, and serves as an independent cause in conjunctions and disjunctions.

A single substance is without qualities, and is independent of the cause, by its combination and disjunction. This is the characteristics of movement (karma).

Substance is the common cause of substance, quality, and action.

The substance is the general cause of substances, qualities, and movements.

Likewise, quality.

So are qualities.

Action is the common cause of conjunction, disjunction, and motion.

Movement is the generality of the speed of combination and disjunction.

Action does not belong to substances inherently.

Movement (karma) is not from the substances.

Because of distinction (i.e., it is inferred by its separateness).

Due to its difference from it.

Substance is the common effect of substances.

Effect of substance is the common generality among the substances.

Because of dissimilarity in qualities, one action is not the effect of another action.

Due to movement brought about by variance in the qualities, because of their respective DHARMAs, results in movement, i.e. Karma.

Duality and similar concepts are numbers, as are separateness, conjunction, and disjunction.

From it comes separateness, multiplicity, individuality, combination, and disjunction as well.

Action does not exist as a general effect arising from non-inherence.

Due to absence of generality (as each substance is bound to have some differences), the common effects of action do not come to light.

Substance is the cause of conjunctions.

The substances are formed by conjunction.

Form is the cause of forms.

(Similarly), by (the conjunction of) forms, forms come about.

Upward motion results from heaviness, effort, and conjunction.

By the striving of gravity, 'conjunction' comes about.

Conjunctions and disjunctions are effects of actions.

Combination and Disjunction comes about by action (karma).

It is stated that, even when causes are of a general kind, action is not the cause of substances or other actions.

The substances are caused because of the effect of generality, and it is spoken as though action is not the cause.

Due to the absence of the cause, there is the absence of the effect.

But, in the absence of effect, there is no absence of the cause.

Thus the generality and the particularity are determined with reference to intellect.

The existence, being continued, because of the cause, is generality only.

The substances, qualities, and actions have both common properties in the form of generality and also special properties in the form of particularity.

The specialities exist elsewhere, in the ends.

It is called "sat", i.e. truth, i.e. existence, if those substances, qualities, and actions exist.

The difference in the meaning between substances, qualities, and actions is 'Satta' i.e. existence.

By the actions of qualities we see becoming. Without action, qualities do not express themselves.

Due to absence of generality and particularity.

The state of being of various substances is engulfed in the beingness of the substances.

Due to absence of generality and particularity.

This way, among the existent, the quality-ness is declared in the qualities.

Due to the absence of generality and particularity.

The action among the existent is declared as the action-ness.

Due to the absence of generality and particularity.

'Sat', i.e. the reality, i.e. existence, is because of particularity as a distinguishing mark, the same existence is also because of the absence of particularity as a distinguishing mark.

The earth has form, taste, smell, and touch.

The water is a smooth fluid that possesses form, taste, and touch.

The effulgence has form and touch.

Possessing the sense of touch is the Air.

These (form, taste, smell, and touch) are not perceived in space.

The remains of clarified butter, wax, and honey - by union with fire, gains "liquid-ness", because of their generality, i.e. common property.

The tin, lead, iron, silver, and gold - by union with fire, liquid-ness is formed by generality, i.e. common property.

Poison of the scorpion, rabbit dwelling on the outskirts, cow-ness of the cow - are the visible distinguishing marks.

(Similarly) touch is (the distinguishing mark) of Air.

and, as touch is not visible, it is invisible (adr̥ṣṭa) distinguishing mark of the Air.

(Air) is a substance with the absence of 'substance-ness'.

Based on action-ness and quality-ness, (Air is a substance).

(As Air) is devoid of substance-ness, it is said to be continually existent.

As Air gets mixed with Air, multiplicity is its distinguishing mark.

Even when Air is in proximity, there is an absence of direct perception. Hence, it appears, seeing is not its distinguishing mark.

It's (Air's) perception property is a generality, as it is without distinction.

Such is the traditional convention (with respect to Air).

Indeed, Name and Action are its distinguishing marks that bring out particularity.

As Name and Action, by its nature of being, are directly perceptible.

Exit and entry are the distinguishing marks of the space ('ākāśasa').

Substance-ness or action alone do not distinguish it.

(space is not distinguished for substance-ness as it) causes another to adhere to a particular nature, and

(space is not distinguished for) action because of absence of contact or association.

It has been observed that qualities of cause precede qualities of effect.

Difference in the effect is due to the absence of the manifestation of sound and touch, because of the absence of their qualities.

Elsewhere (the effect is) due to its inherent nature being perceptible, and not because of its own essential qualities, nor because of the qualities of the mind.

The residue (after the effect, i.e. sound) is the distinguishing mark of the space.

It is said that the permanence of substance-ness is because of air.

The reality of principle is because of the being (coming into existence).

The sound is the special distinguishing mark (of the space), because of the absence of other special distinguishing marks.

By following this method, the separate distinctiveness of those (substances) is established.

Thus ends the 1st chapter (of the second section).

When the flower and garment that are together are brought to proximity, the disappearance of fragrance from the garment is the distinguishing mark.

The property of fragrance is established in the earth (as a distinguishing mark).

Similarly, the heat is explained.

Heat is (the distinguishing mark) of brightness (tejas).

Coldness is (the distinguishing mark) of water.

Having simultaneous experience of the other as before, and the current moment as now, is the distinguishing mark of time.

By that, the nature of air, in terms of its potentiality to flow and eternality, are explained.

The true principles are deduced from becoming.

Continuity is because of the absence of becoming, dis-continuity is because of becoming. The cause is, therefore, because of time.

"It is this" - which indicates thus, is the distinguishing mark.

Thus, the principle of potentiality to flow and the principle of continued existence are explained in the air element.

The principle comes forth by becoming.

By the particular speciality of the effects, the variance comes into being.

The direction east emerges by the combination of the Sun with the past, the future, and the present.

Similarly, are the South, the West, and the Northern directions.

Similarly, the directions in between are also explained.

During the direct perception of generality and the direct perception of speciality, only the speciality is remembered, resulting in doubt.

By seeing or experiencing, the ability to experience (comes into being).

The way the experienced, similarly, not experienced as well, because of the ability to experience.

Thus, doubt results from those that shine and those that do not shine.

The meaning grasped by hearing, that is the sound of the word.

Among the same kind that are equal, and among those with difference, the particularity among both are observed.

(As the sound of the word conveys the meaning) of one substance, not of the other.

Also, (sound of the word) is not action, as it is not the object of perception.

Quality to come into existence and release (of the sound produced by the word), is similar to the inherent nature of movement (karma).

Because of the absence of distinguishing marks of the existent (in the sound produced by the word).

As it (the sound produced by the word) has an inherent nature that differs from the eternal entity.

And, it (the sound produced by the word) is non-eternal as it has a cause.

and, it (the sound produced by the word) is not disproved because of its modifications.

Because of the defect during manifestation.

From the conjunction and disjunction of the sounds produced by words, other sounds of the words manifest.

The sound produced by the word has a distinguishing mark, but is impermanent.

Indeed, of the two, due to absence of inherent drive to act.

From the first syllable “ā”.

And due to the presence of mutual recognition (of identity or agreement).

Doubtful when multiplicity exists.

Absence of number, generally.

Thus the second chapter, second lesson, is completed.

The objects of the senses are well-known.

The non-recognition of sense-objects is the cause for positing a different entity apart from the sense-objects.

That is not verbally expressible.

Due to ignorance of the cause.

From knowledge (arising) in effects.

And from ignorance.

It is indeed a different cause; hence, it is not verbally expressible.

It is indeed a different entity, for the different entity is not verbally expressible.

It is opposed to what inheres in a conjunction and to what inheres in a common substratum.

It (is) the effect of another effect.

That which has become the opposite of what existed.

That which has come into being from that which previously existed.

The one that has become from an existing thing.

Because verbal designation is preceded by common recognition.

What is not commonly known is not verbally expressible.

That which has existed, yet being uncertain, is not verbally expressible.

Because it has horns, therefore it is a horse.
(Note: This sūtra is intentionally ironic or illustrative of faulty reasoning.)

“Because it has horns, therefore it is a cow” — this is an example of a fallacious (non-exclusive) reason.

That which arises from the contact of ātma, sense, and object is something different (from all three).

Action and withdrawal, when observed in the inner ātma, are indications of another (i.e., the ātma’s distinct existence).

The presence and absence of knowledge in contact between self, senses, and objects is the indication of mind.

Its substantiality and eternality are explained by air.

Due to the non-simultaneity of effort and knowledge, the principle is one.

Inhalation, exhalation, eye movements, life, mind movement, changes in internal senses, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, and efforts are indicators of the self.

Its substantiality and eternality are explained by air.

The indication of Yajñadatta in contact is not seen due to absence of direct perception.

There is no distinction from what is generally seen.

Therefore, it is inferred.

Due to exclusion from the word "I", it is not inferred.

If consecutively seen: "I am Devadatta", "I am Yajñadatta" —

Cognition is one in the self where the indicator is seen, due to firmness, like direct perception.

The cognition "Devadatta goes, Yajñadatta goes" is attributed to the body by usage.

But the attribution is doubtful.

The perception "I" is direct of the inner self, as it is present there and absent elsewhere.

The ego is directly perceived as long as the body is identified through attribution like "Devadatta goes".

But the attribution is doubtful.

Knowledge is not about Yajñadatta and Viṣṇumitra due to difference of body alone.

Since "I" by primary and suitable usage does not deviate and distinction is established, it is not inferable.

Due to non-distinction in the production of pleasure, pain, and knowledge, there is oneness.

Multiplicity is due to arrangement.

And due to the power of scripture.

Thus ends the second section and the third chapter.

Eternal due to possessing a real cause.

Its effect is the sign.

The effect exists due to the existence of the cause.

“Non-eternal” indicates the nature of specific negation.

Ignorance.

Perception arises from the great substance due to its possession of many elements and form.

Though air is a substance and great, it is not perceived due to absence of form and modification.

Perception of form is due to conjunction of many substances and distinctive form.

Thus knowledge of taste, smell, and touch is explained.

There is no deviation due to its absence.

Number, magnitude, separateness, conjunction and disjunction, priority and posteriority, and motion are visible due to inherence in form-endowed substances.

They are not visible in formless entities.

Thus, knowledge through all the senses concerning qualities and entities is explained.

The first section of the fourth chapter is concluded.

The effectual substance beginning with earth is again threefold, denoted by body, senses, and objects.

The fivefold nature does not exist because conjunction among visible and invisible is not perceptible.

Also due to the non-emergence of a different quality.

It is not of threefold nature.

But atomic conjunction is not refuted.

Therein the body is of two types: womb-born and not womb-born.

Because of indeterminacy in direction and location.

And due to particular merit.

And due to the absence of specific naming.

Because designation is beginningless.

There are beings not born of womb.

And from the indication of the Veda.

The second portion of the fourth chapter is concluded.

Action in the hand is due to conjunction of self and effort.

Likewise, action in the pestle arises from conjunction with the hand.

In actions like pounding with a pestle, the conjunction of the hand is not the cause due to the distinction of impact-origin.

Likewise, the conjunction of the self causes action of the hand.

Due to impact and conjunction with the pestle, there is action in the hand.

Self-action also arises from conjunction with the hand.

In the absence of conjunction, falling occurs due to gravity.

Due to absence of specific propulsion, there is neither upward nor lateral movement.

Specific propulsion results from specific effort.

Specific lifting results from specific propulsion.

The action upon a child is explained through the action of the hand.

Likewise in the bursting of what is burnt.

Movement occurs even in the absence of effort in one who is asleep.

Action in grass arises from conjunction with the wind.

The movement of a gem or attraction to a needle has an unseen cause.

Specific conjunctions of simultaneous arrow-parts cause variation in action.

The action of the first morsel from propulsion causes successive motions through impression.

In the absence of impression, falling occurs due to gravity.

The first daily portion of the fifth chapter is completed.

Action on earth arises from the verb of impelling and compound contact.

It is specifically caused by the unseen force.

Falling of water occurs due to heaviness in the absence of contact.

Flowing occurs due to liquidity.

Ascent occurs from the contact of joints with air.

It arises from impelling pressure and compound contact.

Approaching a tree is thus caused by unseen force.

The mass and dissolution of water arise from contact with heat.

There, crackling is a sign.

And it is Vedic.

Thunder and lightning arise from the contact and separation of waters.

The actions of fire and air have been explained through the action of earth.

The upward flame of fire, lateral motion of air, and movement of atoms and minds — all primary actions — are caused by the unseen force.

The action of the mind has been explained through the action of the hand.

Pleasure and pain arise from the conjunction of self, senses, mind, and object.

When not initiated and the mind is fixed in the self, the body’s pain is absent — that is yoga.

Withdrawal, approach, eating-drinking combinations, and other functional conjunctions are caused by the unseen force.

In its absence, there is no conjunction and no manifestation — that is liberation.

Darkness is non-existence due to dissimilarity in substance, quality, and action-formation.

Light is obstructed by another substance and by covering.

Direction, time, and space are inactive due to dissimilarity with what has activity.

By this, actions and qualities have been explained.

Inherence of the inactive is denied from actions.

The cause is the non-inherent qualities.

Direction has been explained by the qualities.

Time is by the cause.

Sentence formation in the Veda is preceded by intention.

Naming and action in the Brāhmaṇa are indicators of accomplishment.

Giving is preceded by intention.

Likewise, receiving is also preceded by intention.

Qualities of one self are non-causal in another self.

That does not exist in wicked eating.

Wickedness is in injury.

Fault arises from its deliberate utterance.

That does not exist in the non-wicked.

Activity recurs in the qualified case.

Activity occurs either in the equal or in the inferior.

By this, taking others’ wealth from inferior, equal, and superior righteous persons is explained.

Likewise, renunciation of the opposed.

Renunciation occurs in the inferior or the superior.

In the equal, renunciation of self or of the other occurs.

In the superior, renunciation of self — thus it is.

In the absence of visible purposes, the purpose of the visible and invisible is for prosperity.

Consecration, fasting, celibacy, residence in the preceptor's home, forest life, sacrifice, charity, sprinkling, direction, star, mantra, time, and regulations — all are for the unseen.

The fourfold life stage system with and without ulterior motive.

Dispositional fault is a defect of ulterior motive; non-ulterior motive is faultless.

That which has desirable form, taste, smell, and touch, and is sprinkled or fully sprinkled, is pure.

“Impure” is the negation of purity.

And another meaning.

For the undisciplined, prosperity does not arise from pure food due to absence of regulation.

Or it exists due to a different meaning of Yama.

And if nonexistent, due to absence.

Attachment arises from pleasure.

And due to identification with that.

And from the unseen.

And from specific caste.

Activity in virtue and vice is preceded by desire and aversion.

That is union and separation.

Liberation in souls is explained.

Qualities have been stated.

Form, taste, smell, and touch in earth and others are impermanent due to the impermanence of the substance.

By this, eternality in eternal things is stated.

In light, fire, and air, they are eternal due to the eternality of the substance.

In impermanent things, they are impermanent due to the impermanence of the substance.

In earth, cooked products are preceded by the quality of the cause.

Due to being one substance.

Perception and non-perception of atom and the great are explained in the eternal.

And due to multiplicity of cause.

Therefore, the atom is the opposite.

Atom and great are due to presence and absence of distinction in that.

Due to simultaneity.

And from example.

The absence of minuteness and greatness is explained through action and qualities.

Non-actions by actions, and qualities by qualities are explained.

Actions and qualities are explained through minuteness and greatness.

By this, length and shortness are explained.

Impermanence in the impermanent.

Eternality in the eternal.

Eternally circular.

Ignorance is also a sign of knowledge.

From manifestation arise the great, ether, and likewise the self.

Due to the absence of that, the atom is mind.

Direction is explained by qualities.

Time is in the cause.

Unity arises as otherness due to the distinction among form, taste, smell, and touch.

Likewise, separateness.

The absence of singular unity and separateness is explained by minuteness and greatness.

Due to the innumerability of actions and qualities, universal unity does not exist.

That is a delusion.

However, due to absence of unity, devotion does not exist.

Due to absence of singular unity and separateness between cause and effect, such unity or separateness does not exist.

This has been explained concerning the two impermanent entities.

Conjunction arises either from one’s action, both’s action, or from the conjunction itself.

Thus, the classification is explained.

The absence of conjunction and disjunction is explained through minuteness and greatness.

Actions are by actions, qualities by qualities, through minuteness and greatness — thus it is.

Due to the absence of combined existence, conjunction and disjunction do not exist between effect and cause.

Because it is a quality.

A quality too is distinguished.

Due to being inactive.

From usage such as "when absent, it is not," it is inferred.

There is a relation between word, meaning, and existence.

From the stick (as example) the difference between conjunctional and inherent relation is understood.

The cognition of word and meaning is conventional.

Farther and nearer are determined by same direction, same time, and by proximity and remoteness.

Due to precedence or subsequence in cause, too.

The absence of far-ness and nearness is explained through minuteness and greatness.

Actions are caused by actions.

Qualities are by qualities.

Because of the perception “this is here,” inherence exists between cause and effect.

The negation of substance-ness and quality-ness is explained by existence.

Reality is through existence.

Thus ends the second daily section of the seventh chapter.

Knowledge among substances has been explained.

There, the self and the mind are not directly perceivable.

In the context of describing knowledge, the method of its production is stated.

Among qualities and actions, when in contact, the substance is the cause of the arising of knowledge.

In general and particular attributes, due to the absence of their distinctions, knowledge arises from that alone.

In substances, qualities, and actions, there is dependence on general and particular characteristics.

In substance, there is dependence on substance, quality, and action.

In qualities and actions, due to the absence of quality and action, dependence on them does not exist.

Inherence arises from whiteness; cognition of whiteness arises from cognition and the white object — these two are in the relation of effect and cause.

In substances, there are other such types of causes.

Due to absence of causal connection and due to the causal sequence, the order of cognitions like pot and cloth is not disrupted, because there is no destruction of the result.

“This one has been done by you, feed him” — such cognitions are dependent.

Because of existence in the seen, and non-existence in the unseen.

“Object” — thus in substances, qualities, and actions.

The fivefold nature among substances is refuted.

Due to predominance and possession of smell, earth is the basis in the knowledge of smell.

Likewise, water, fire, and air are the basis in knowledge of taste, form, and touch due to non-distinction.

Due to the absence of reference to action and quality, the prior is non-existent.

Existence and non-existence.

Due to absence of designation of action and quality in the non-existent, it is a different entity.

Existence and non-existence both.

And that which is different from the non-existent, that is also non-existent.

Non-existence is due to the absence of perception of a past entity and due to opposition with the memory of that entity, like perception.

Likewise, in absence, because presence is perceptible.

By this, the non-pot, non-cow, and non-dharma are explained.

“It does not exist” (is) a distinct negation of non-being.

“The pot is not in the house” is the negation of the conjunction of the existent pot with the house.

Due to a special conjunction of the self and the mind within, the self is perceptible.

Likewise, it is perceptible in other substances.

Of those whose internal senses are uncomposed and whose concentration is withdrawn.

That (perception arises) from inherence in actions and qualities.

From the inherence of the self, in the qualities of the self.

This is inferred to be an effect, cause, conjunctional, opposing, or inherent to it.

The cause-effect relationship arises from the component part.

By this, verbal knowledge is explained.

Cause, designation, sign, means of knowledge, and instrument are not different in meaning.

This is due to dependence on the cognition "this is of this".

Memory arises from specific conjunction of self and mind, and from impression.

Likewise, dream.

Near-dream (state near to dream).

And from dharma.

Misapprehension arises from defects in the senses and impressions.

That is faulty knowledge.

Faultless knowledge is valid.

The views of seers and perfected ones arise from authoritative dharmas.

Due to distinct causes of desirable and undesirable and their opposition, pleasure and pain are of different nature.

The absence of distinction between doubt and determination is the reason for considering them different knowledges.

The origination of the two arises from perception and inference.

"It was" is also admitted.

Though present, due to non-perception of the effect.

Because other inherent causes for the same effect have been observed.

Thus, in one part — the head, back, belly, vital points — the particularity is known from those particular parts.

Cause is so called in substance due to the inherence of the effect.

Or due to conjunction.

Actions are due to inherence in the cause.

Similarly, qualities are due to inherence in the same object as the cause.

Conjunction of the cloth is due to inherence in the cause.

And due to inherence in the cause of the cause.

The specific quality of fire arises from conjunctional inherence.

The application of what is seen and purposeful, in the absence of alternatives, is for prosperity.

Thus, the authority of scripture is from its declaration.